Popular in Professional

Culture and Society

The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place

New York University Harvey Moltoch

Education

The Role of Education in Reducing Racial Inequality

University of Southern California Pedro A. Noguera

Law

Diversity and Social Mobility in the UK legal profession

Law Society I. Stephanie Boyce

Internet Law

The Law of AI for Good

University of San Diego Orly Lobel

Pharmacy

Cytotoxic Activity and Anti-Migratory Effect of Berberine-Phytantriol Liquid Crystalline on Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

University of Technology Sydney Kamal Dua

Human Rights Law

Transforming Restorative Justice for Transitional Settings

University of Nottingham Kerry Clamp

Education

Race and Modern Architecture

View more insights in Professional - Architecture

View more figures from Cornell University

View the page of Esra Akcan

Read the Study

Esra Akcan makes a plea for what it calls “open architecture” and asks what would have happened if the architectural discipline and profession were shaped by a new ethics of hospitality toward the immigrant.

Image courtesy of interviewee. March 18, 2024

Generating Workspace

Export as PDF

The speaker discusses their understanding of race as a socially constructed category that leads to racism, emphasizing that race is more about societal classifications than inherent characteristics tied to physical appearance. They assert the need for architectural education to address the construction of race and its implications in history, planning, and urban development. The speaker argues that various architectural practices, including segregation in urban neighborhoods and discriminatory building policies, reflect racial dynamics.

The discussion extends to how contemporary architectural history still inherits 19th-century European racial categories, necessitating a new approach that recognizes the contributions of marginalized groups. The speaker advocates for an "intertwined history" approach, highlighting global connections and the contributions of diverse communities to architecture.

Furthermore, the speaker focuses on the specific case of urban renewal in Berlin's Rosberg district, examining how immigrants—especially Turkish populations—were racialized through various discriminatory housing regulations. They explore subversive efforts by architects to create inclusive practices during the renewal process, ultimately fostering a more equitable urban environment that allows immigrant families to remain in their homes.

The narrative emphasizes the importance of recognizing the agency of immigrants in shaping their surroundings and advocates for a more just architectural history that embraces the contributions of all communities, rather than perpetuating a Eurocentric, male-dominated perspective. The speaker concludes that understanding these dynamics is crucial for exposing racism and working towards justice and peace in our built environments.

Language:

Export as PDF

Export as PDF
Here are some articles and topics that resonate with the themes discussed in the video regarding race, architecture, urban development, and social justice:

1. **Understanding Race as a Social Construct in Urban Planning**
- This article examines how race is understood in urban planning, criticizing traditional practices that ignore the social complexities of race and advocating for inclusive methodologies.

2. **Architecture and Racial Dynamics: Historical Perspectives**
- This piece delves into the historical convideo of architecture and race, exploring how urban planning has perpetuated racial segregation and the legacies of colonialism in urban environments.

3. **The Role of Architects in Urban Social Justice Movements**
- A discussion on contemporary architects who focus on social justice, emphasizing their roles in addressing racial inequality through inclusive design and community-centered urban development.

4. **Decolonizing Urban Space: Contributions of Marginalized Ethnic Communities**
- An exploration of how different ethnic groups have historically shaped urban spaces, advocating for a decolonized approach to urban planning that acknowledges their contributions.

5. **Contemporary Architectural Practices and the Legacy of European Colonialism**
- This article analyzes modern architectural practices through the lens of lingering colonial ideologies, urging a reevaluation of how architectural history is taught and understood.

6. **Immigrant Narratives in Urban Renewal Projects**
- This case study focuses on urban renewal initiatives in major cities, particularly examining how immigrant communities are often adversely affected and how architects can advocate for their rights.

7. **Racial Justice in the Built Environment: Case Studies and Strategies**
- A comprehensive look at various strategies employed by architects and urban planners to foster racial justice within urban environments, highlighting successful case studies from around the world.

8. **Reassessing Urban Spaces: The Interrelationship of Race and Architecture**
- This article invites readers to reconsider the correlation between racial categorization and architectural design, emphasizing the need for awareness in contemporary urban planning.

9. **The Intersection of Architecture, Race, and Community Identity**
- A discussion on how architectural design can either perpetuate or challenge racial stereotypes, with a focus on community identity and the importance of inclusive design practices.

10. **Examining Urban Segregation: Lessons from the Past and Future Directions**
- An analysis of urban segregation patterns through history, providing insights into how we can learn from past mistakes to create more equitable urban spaces moving forward.

These articles take inspiration from the video’s exploration of race as a social construct, the implications for architecture and urban planning, and the importance of inclusivity and justice within these fields.

X-TIMESTAMP-MAP:LOCAL=00:00:00.000,MPEGTS=900000

00:00.025 --> 00:02.125
It might be useful to say a few words about

00:02.145 --> 00:03.245
how I define race.

00:03.705 --> 00:06.485
Um, I understand race,

00:06.585 --> 00:09.285
to be a social constructed category,

00:09.315 --> 00:13.205
that produces racism, based on what people look like,

00:13.345 --> 00:15.645
how they sound, or where, where they come from.

00:16.465 --> 00:18.885
Uh, so the categorization of races

00:19.185 --> 00:23.485
and its product, racism is in a way an artificial ification

00:23.505 --> 00:26.965
of human bodies, with some essential,

00:26.965 --> 00:28.845
characteristics that are attached to them,

00:29.065 --> 00:30.365
to these bodies by birth.

00:31.065 --> 00:34.245
Uh, for that reason, I think race has much less to do,

00:34.245 --> 00:35.605
with the actual human bodies,

00:35.825 --> 00:39.285
but more, to do with the sciences, politics,

00:39.355 --> 00:42.805
that divide, classify and label, them.

00:43.105 --> 00:45.485
So races, I think, are racialized.

00:46.145 --> 00:48.765
Uh, and needless to say, to undo racism,

00:49.105 --> 00:50.405
we have to speak about race.

00:50.625 --> 00:52.965
Uh, and for that reason, I think architecture

00:52.965 --> 00:54.285
and architectural education

00:54.285 --> 00:57.325
or the history courses in architectural,

00:57.325 --> 01:00.325
education is a very productive medium to speak about

01:00.385 --> 01:01.965
how race has been constructed.

01:02.745 --> 01:06.685
Uh, we, you know, these courses may expose our modern,

01:06.835 --> 01:08.485
knowledge, modern epistemology

01:08.865 --> 01:11.595
or, phenomena like slavery

01:11.695 --> 01:15.875
and colonization relied on these categories of race

01:15.985 --> 01:17.315
that we still live in.

01:17.935 --> 01:19.155
Uh, and at the same time,

01:19.155 --> 01:21.795
however, I think we need to study race,

01:22.225 --> 01:23.875
with the anticipation that it,

01:23.935 --> 01:26.155
racial studies will not be needed,

01:26.175 --> 01:29.835
in the future will disappear when racism is undone.

01:30.055 --> 01:34.755
Um, and concerning your question about what does race have

01:34.755 --> 01:38.435
to do with architecture, in a way the, you know, there's

01:38.455 --> 01:39.755
so many levels to this.

01:39.895 --> 01:42.275
Uh, think of the segregation of urban neighborhoods

01:42.375 --> 01:46.675
or buildings, building parts or redlining,

01:46.855 --> 01:48.315
or the association of beauty

01:48.425 --> 01:50.395
with European classical architecture.

01:51.135 --> 01:54.235
Uh, the perceived hierarchy between the climates

01:54.235 --> 01:56.515
of the world and their association with beauty

01:56.655 --> 02:00.675
and progress, architectural symbolism, the ranking

02:00.935 --> 02:04.075
of architectural styles, the racial separation

02:04.075 --> 02:05.475
between elite designers

02:05.495 --> 02:07.835
and the construction workers of buildings and so on.

02:07.835 --> 02:09.835
So, actually, architecture

02:09.835 --> 02:13.115
and buildings have a lot, to do with, with racism.

02:14.215 --> 02:17.915
Discrimination based on gender, family inheritance,

02:18.065 --> 02:22.475
skin color caste existed throughout, centuries,

02:22.575 --> 02:23.875
in many parts of the world.

02:24.415 --> 02:28.235
Uh, but today we live, in an age that inherits,

02:28.295 --> 02:31.315
to a large extent European racial categories

02:31.495 --> 02:32.635
of the 19th century.

02:33.495 --> 02:35.955
Um, in a way these categories,

02:36.065 --> 02:37.875
have impacted also the making

02:37.935 --> 02:40.075
of architectural history as a discipline.

02:40.575 --> 02:43.515
Uh, in other words, you know, architectural history

02:43.515 --> 02:47.155
as a discipline at its foundation inherits many

02:47.155 --> 02:51.155
of the racial categories of European racial categories,

02:51.215 --> 02:52.475
of the 19th century.

02:53.255 --> 02:57.395
Uh, and for this reason, I think, to understand

02:57.495 --> 02:58.835
or under racism, we

02:58.835 --> 03:00.685
Also have to think of new knowledge, how

03:00.685 --> 03:03.445
to produce new knowledge, that goes

03:03.465 --> 03:05.365
beyond our comfort zones.

03:05.985 --> 03:09.165
Um, so the narrative that has been produced

03:09.165 --> 03:12.725
by Eurocentric racial categories, which kind

03:12.725 --> 03:16.685
of see architecture is it set of sequential, practices

03:16.685 --> 03:18.285
between white male architects.

03:18.285 --> 03:19.765
That's a Eurocentric canon.

03:19.945 --> 03:22.525
It has been very influential for many years now.

03:22.545 --> 03:26.165
It is, I mean, the weakness of that canon, is,

03:26.305 --> 03:27.645
well established.

03:28.105 --> 03:31.605
Um, but the, alternatives that have been produced,

03:31.675 --> 03:35.765
against them is not totally, they,

03:35.765 --> 03:38.125
they reproduce some of the racial categories.

03:38.145 --> 03:40.725
For instance, after, admitting the weakness

03:40.725 --> 03:44.685
of the Eurocentric canon, people have started,

03:44.685 --> 03:45.725
there's a tendency

03:45.905 --> 03:49.125
to divide world architecture into categories like Islamic

03:49.125 --> 03:51.485
architecture, Asian architecture, African architecture,

03:51.485 --> 03:53.285
to put more, to be more inclusive.

03:53.905 --> 03:54.965
But this,

03:55.365 --> 03:58.565
tendency also perpetrates conventional categories,

03:58.745 --> 04:02.405
and they assume these architectures are self-contained

04:02.425 --> 04:05.045
and often hierarchical, territorial zones.

04:05.425 --> 04:08.565
Uh, for instance, the clash of civilizations theory,

04:08.785 --> 04:11.165
is a very good, example of this.

04:11.745 --> 04:15.885
And this mindset, I think is still very vulnerable, to,

04:16.185 --> 04:20.085
entrenching some of the, racial categories

04:20.085 --> 04:22.245
that produced racism in the first place.

04:22.305 --> 04:24.405
For that reason, in my own, writing

04:24.785 --> 04:26.685
or teaching, I,

04:26.745 --> 04:29.045
use something called an intertwined history approach.

04:29.545 --> 04:34.405
Uh, I try to see, the, intertwined history

04:34.505 --> 04:37.605
of modern architecture that in a way, rewrites,

04:37.605 --> 04:41.205
modernity in terms of migrations, translations, as opposed

04:41.225 --> 04:44.045
to this colonial nationalist and separative framework.

04:44.305 --> 04:46.725
So it means seeing a much more connected world,

04:46.725 --> 04:49.645
because of the people ideas of objects, technologies,

04:49.825 --> 04:52.805
images, information that travel between spaces,

04:52.945 --> 04:54.005
and that gets,

04:54.005 --> 04:57.005
translated each time rather than seeing a world

04:57.005 --> 05:00.405
that depends on these segregated, isolated, racial

05:00.425 --> 05:02.725
or geographical, categories.

05:03.025 --> 05:06.565
Um, and one of the hardest narratives to challenge,

05:06.785 --> 05:09.685
if you want, you ask me to give some examples.

05:09.985 --> 05:12.445
For instance, one of the hardest narratives to challenge,

05:12.625 --> 05:16.965
is this established history that sees modernity,

05:17.225 --> 05:18.885
or enlightenment as a European

05:18.945 --> 05:21.165
and North American invention,

05:21.165 --> 05:23.565
that was then disseminated to the rest of the world.

05:23.905 --> 05:26.525
In a way, this, narrative sees the Wests

05:26.625 --> 05:29.765
and global dominance, over modern world

05:29.865 --> 05:31.325
as something to be proud of.

05:32.105 --> 05:36.965
Um, but this narrative also obscures how modernity was,

05:37.145 --> 05:40.325
indeed produced in a global network, of,

05:40.505 --> 05:41.765
creations.

05:42.265 --> 05:44.925
Uh, for instance, it's curious that, the French

05:44.925 --> 05:47.885
and American revolutions are usually treated in

05:47.885 --> 05:50.965
architectural history or in history in general, as big leaps

05:50.965 --> 05:54.685
of humanity as benchmarks of modern symbols

05:54.685 --> 05:57.005
of self-governance, freedom, and so on.

05:57.505 --> 05:59.725
But, Haiti revolution,

05:59.825 --> 06:01.125
or the slave revolts

06:01.125 --> 06:04.085
that were happening simultaneously are not really,

06:04.085 --> 06:06.605
integrated into, into this narrative.

06:06.745 --> 06:10.405
So, for that reason, in my own classes, rather than

06:10.965 --> 06:13.485
treating, let's say, teaching only French Revolution

06:13.505 --> 06:16.765
as a chronological macro, freedom, equality, human rights,

06:16.765 --> 06:21.125
and so on, I try to see, the connected history

06:21.125 --> 06:24.165
between American French and Haiti, revolutions,

06:24.745 --> 06:26.205
or to give another example,

06:26.235 --> 06:28.005
when teaching Industrial Revolution,

06:28.685 --> 06:31.925
I do not look only at the impact of new materials,

06:31.925 --> 06:35.005
technologies and mass production in the architecture

06:35.005 --> 06:36.565
of London, Paris, and Chicago.

06:37.105 --> 06:39.325
But I also discuss strong cause

06:39.325 --> 06:41.205
and effect relation between industrialization

06:41.205 --> 06:44.725
and colonization of, Africa and, west Asia.

06:45.665 --> 06:49.205
Or when I'm teaching post-colonial independence, I also,

06:49.205 --> 06:52.045
look at the continuing Western mandates

06:52.465 --> 06:55.725
and the era of erasure of ethnic minorities in the name

06:55.725 --> 06:57.685
of anti-colonial resistance.

06:57.705 --> 07:02.525
So I try to kind of, present, a history

07:02.545 --> 07:06.125
of the world that is much more, connect, connected,

07:06.545 --> 07:08.245
and sees both the colonial

07:08.465 --> 07:12.445
and cosmopolitan ideals, in disconnected history.

07:13.145 --> 07:16.885
Um, and I think the ultimate aim of this history is,

07:17.185 --> 07:18.325
to expose the racism,

07:18.585 --> 07:21.565
but at the same time, to build some sort

07:21.565 --> 07:22.725
of justice and peace.

07:22.905 --> 07:27.245
Uh, therefore, this history needs to also excavate, some

07:27.245 --> 07:30.445
of the good examples, some cosmopolitan potentials

07:31.365 --> 07:35.005
contributions of the hio erased, minority architects

07:35.005 --> 07:37.925
of any gender, any race from any place of world.

07:37.985 --> 07:42.405
To build for a more just, picture of,

07:42.625 --> 07:44.845
of architectural history, in that book,

07:45.005 --> 07:49.765
I look at the racialization, of Muslim immigrants

07:49.765 --> 07:53.045
and refugees, in Germany as,

07:53.265 --> 07:57.045
it reflected on public housing and memory, debates.

07:57.785 --> 08:01.965
Um, so open architecture, for me, I mean, I define it,

08:02.065 --> 08:05.645
as a new ethical welcoming, into the design process.

08:06.625 --> 08:08.485
Um, in a way, the book asks

08:08.485 --> 08:12.005
what would've happened if architectural profession were

08:12.005 --> 08:15.205
shaped by a welcoming toward the racialized immigrant,

08:15.505 --> 08:17.205
and I call this open architecture.

08:17.205 --> 08:19.765
So I try to look at formal programmatic

08:19.765 --> 08:22.085
or procedural steps towards open architecture.

08:22.905 --> 08:24.405
Um, and as you said,

08:24.445 --> 08:26.445
I look particularly at the urban renewal

08:26.465 --> 08:29.085
of Berlin Rosberg in the, 1980s.

08:29.705 --> 08:33.525
Uh, and the state of the art public housing buildings,

08:33.625 --> 08:36.285
are well known in the field of architecture,

08:36.585 --> 08:37.765
in professional debates

08:37.765 --> 08:39.325
because of the famous international

08:39.325 --> 08:40.845
architects that built there.

08:40.965 --> 08:42.405
I mean, there's a very long list

08:42.405 --> 08:44.205
of famous architecture names.

08:44.665 --> 08:47.325
In a way, the fact that these buildings were built in an

08:47.325 --> 08:49.485
immigrant district had not been addressed.

08:50.145 --> 08:52.965
Um, and the Rosberg borough at the time,

08:52.965 --> 08:54.325
it was along the Berlin Wall.

08:54.325 --> 08:55.925
The Berlin Wall stood at the time,

08:56.585 --> 08:59.725
and that neighborhood had been heavily bombed,

08:59.725 --> 09:01.005
during the Second World War.

09:01.025 --> 09:05.005
And it was left, to, it was neglected,

09:05.005 --> 09:06.485
without municipal repair.

09:06.905 --> 09:08.685
Uh, and at the time, it was composed

09:08.685 --> 09:13.405
of almost 50% immigrants, predominantly from Turkey,

09:13.985 --> 09:18.045
who had arrived either as guest workers, since 1961,

09:18.105 --> 09:20.445
or as refugees, in the aftermath

09:20.445 --> 09:22.445
of the 1980s Cota in Turkey.

09:23.145 --> 09:25.085
Um, I mean, there are many layers in the book,

09:25.085 --> 09:26.885
but the one that I think would be relevant

09:26.885 --> 09:28.845
for your question is this racialization

09:28.845 --> 09:31.525
of these immigrant Muslim immigrants in Germany.

09:31.985 --> 09:35.325
Uh, and the book defines, in a way, two major steps,

09:35.345 --> 09:37.925
for an what might be called an anti-racist,

09:37.925 --> 09:38.965
architectural history.

09:39.505 --> 09:42.045
Uh, the first step is to write this history in a way

09:42.045 --> 09:44.085
that exposes discrimination,

09:44.085 --> 09:48.845
because even that is, was not, acknowledged.

09:49.225 --> 09:53.205
Um, and the second, is to show, the agency

09:53.225 --> 09:56.605
of these immigrants in the making of, the urban spaces

09:57.115 --> 10:00.405
that we assumed had been created by white male architects.

10:00.945 --> 10:04.205
Um, so in terms of the first step about,

10:04.525 --> 10:07.645
exposing discrimination, the Middle Eastern,

10:07.955 --> 10:11.565
because this was never done in a very, overt way,

10:11.855 --> 10:13.565
we're talking about 1980s,

10:13.985 --> 10:17.005
but I tried to disclose how hidden,

10:18.235 --> 10:20.335
and sometimes not so hidden waste,

10:20.585 --> 10:23.535
racializes immigrants, not so hidden waste included,

10:23.535 --> 10:25.775
like toilet decrease, ex explaining how

10:25.775 --> 10:26.895
to handle human waste.

10:27.635 --> 10:28.975
Um, the German

10:29.035 --> 10:30.575
and Turkish children were,

10:30.575 --> 10:31.975
separated into different classes.

10:32.715 --> 10:35.055
Uh, there were many newspaper advertisements

10:35.055 --> 10:37.575
that made it clear that immigrants were not eligible

10:37.575 --> 10:38.695
to rent apartments.

10:39.615 --> 10:42.175
Landlord and housing bureaus consistently turned down

10:42.175 --> 10:43.375
migrants applications

10:43.475 --> 10:46.535
and pushed them into rundown buildings.

10:46.725 --> 10:48.975
Then they define those rundown buildings

10:48.995 --> 10:51.775
as ghettos in the sense of source of trial,

10:52.135 --> 10:53.575
troubled crime and chaos.

10:54.315 --> 10:56.415
Um, and the landlords took advantage

10:56.475 --> 10:58.375
of the Turkish tenant's lack of rights,

10:58.375 --> 11:00.935
and they did not perform legally required maintenance.

11:01.435 --> 11:04.375
Uh, and there was also some very hidden ways,

11:04.495 --> 11:06.015
that racialized,

11:06.075 --> 11:09.095
or exerted discrimination, for instance, the government,

11:09.305 --> 11:11.335
legal ways to handle,

11:11.335 --> 11:13.575
this issue was very discriminatory.

11:13.595 --> 11:17.255
In the 1970s, the Berlin Senates passed a series

11:17.315 --> 11:18.335
of housing laws

11:18.355 --> 11:19.735
and regulations,

11:19.735 --> 11:22.575
that relied on these racialized categorizations.

11:22.635 --> 11:25.375
For, for instance, there was something called the ban on

11:25.465 --> 11:28.455
entry and settlement, which prohibited the movement

11:28.455 --> 11:31.575
of additional immigrant families into rosberg.

11:31.755 --> 11:34.695
Um, or there was something called the desegregation

11:34.705 --> 11:38.735
regulation, which mandated that only 10% of units would be,

11:39.235 --> 11:42.375
rented to, immigrants all over West Berlin.

11:42.515 --> 11:45.775
For instance, if there was a building with 10 apartments,

11:46.035 --> 11:49.015
and if one apartment was occupied by a Turkish family,

11:49.195 --> 11:51.495
no other Turkish family could move in.

11:51.785 --> 11:54.005
There was a quota. In other words,

11:54.025 --> 11:57.325
and the social Democrats justified these regulations

11:57.325 --> 11:58.325
as integration.

11:58.585 --> 12:00.805
Um, but according to immigrants themselves,

12:00.805 --> 12:03.845
these regulations were meant to obstruct them,

12:03.915 --> 12:07.205
from constructing social and, cultural networks.

12:07.745 --> 12:09.925
And during the urban renewal, the,

12:09.925 --> 12:13.645
government also shifted, to Christian Democrats who,

12:13.645 --> 12:15.605
mobilized anti-immigration policies.

12:15.625 --> 12:18.485
For instance, the building senator that was responsible

12:18.485 --> 12:21.885
for Berg's urban renewal clearly said, you know,

12:21.885 --> 12:24.165
whoever runs to Germany must feel like a German.

12:24.225 --> 12:26.205
If you don't want, just go back to our country.

12:26.265 --> 12:30.245
So there were these anti-immigration, policies as well.

12:30.425 --> 12:33.685
Uh, and this urban renewal, very ly,

12:34.855 --> 12:38.205
translated these policies into the functional program,

12:38.225 --> 12:41.325
of the buildings, for instance, in the new buildings,

12:41.545 --> 12:45.365
the, government made sure that only five

12:45.425 --> 12:48.645
or 10% of the apartments will new public housing,

12:48.645 --> 12:51.965
apartments will be big apartments that would have been,

12:51.995 --> 12:54.165
good for the, immigrant families.

12:54.425 --> 12:58.085
Um, so in other words, the, governments,

12:58.185 --> 13:00.965
had assessed that there were too many immigrants in Rosberg,

13:01.065 --> 13:02.165
and they wanted to make sure

13:02.165 --> 13:05.245
that the Germans benefited from the new urban renewal

13:05.425 --> 13:07.645
and high quality public housing.

13:08.185 --> 13:11.365
So they made sure that only apartments that were,

13:12.065 --> 13:14.885
not good for big Turkish families were constructed.

13:15.425 --> 13:16.685
So, in other words,

13:16.685 --> 13:19.325
this program would either diminish the immigrant

13:20.205 --> 13:22.365
families chances to move into new public housing,

13:22.475 --> 13:23.965
high quality public housing,

13:24.625 --> 13:27.605
or, it would welcome them only if they changed

13:27.785 --> 13:31.615
how they lived and fit, the, standards

13:31.615 --> 13:32.975
of German family size.

13:33.395 --> 13:35.335
So this collapsibility between race

13:35.395 --> 13:38.095
and non-citizen conveniently served

13:38.155 --> 13:41.375
to exert discrimination under the pretext of, law.

13:42.195 --> 13:45.415
Uh, so in the book, I discuss how these policymakers,

13:45.435 --> 13:48.095
use architecture as a mechanism of racial control,

13:48.435 --> 13:51.695
but I also analyze how architects in a way, responded

13:51.695 --> 13:53.575
to this, this situation.

13:53.845 --> 13:57.295
Some were complicit, some were naive, politically naive,

13:57.605 --> 13:59.975
some were ironic, and some were indeed subverted.

13:59.975 --> 14:04.135
They really, some of them subverted, these,

14:04.685 --> 14:06.055
laws for non-citizens,

14:06.075 --> 14:08.615
and made sure that the new urban renewal

14:08.755 --> 14:11.055
and public housing benefited the,

14:11.055 --> 14:12.535
racialized immigrants as well.

14:13.035 --> 14:16.095
So there's maybe two part question. One is methodological.

14:16.235 --> 14:20.415
The other is, how did this non rights to the city were,

14:20.765 --> 14:21.975
enabled in a way?

14:22.555 --> 14:25.695
How, how were these discriminatory laws subverted?

14:26.155 --> 14:29.695
So, speaking to the first part, methodologically, I want

14:29.695 --> 14:33.055
to extend, the theme of the book Open Architecture to

14:33.575 --> 14:34.615
a format of writing.

14:34.895 --> 14:39.535
I tried to, like, maybe,

14:39.645 --> 14:42.615
find an open form of writing history,

14:42.675 --> 14:44.895
by giving voice not only to the established

14:44.915 --> 14:47.055
or understudied architects,

14:47.075 --> 14:48.775
but also to the immigrant residents.

14:48.775 --> 14:51.015
Architectural history usually gives, voice

14:51.085 --> 14:54.005
to the architects, but not necessarily the, residents.

14:54.505 --> 14:59.005
Um, so I rang every bell basically in Berlin Rosberg,

14:59.105 --> 15:00.765
during the research of this book.

15:00.985 --> 15:03.485
Um, and I came to, I identify

15:03.485 --> 15:06.565
and build trust, with those immigrants who were willing

15:06.565 --> 15:09.645
to tell their stories at length to me over a few years.

15:10.465 --> 15:13.525
And I tried to configure their voices,

15:14.945 --> 15:17.365
Biogen inspired by oral history,

15:17.385 --> 15:20.085
and storytelling rather than sociology, ethnography,

15:20.085 --> 15:21.925
or other forms of environmental science

15:22.585 --> 15:24.605
and oral history was my preferred method,

15:24.605 --> 15:27.405
because I think an oral historian rephrase

15:28.205 --> 15:30.485
refrains from representing an entire ethnicity

15:30.505 --> 15:33.165
and entire race, and as the name,

15:33.185 --> 15:35.645
of the underrepresented individual into history.

15:36.025 --> 15:39.405
So rather than saying immigrant, or rather than saying 50%

15:39.425 --> 15:41.085
or 60% a percentage,

15:41.425 --> 15:43.525
and rather than trying to find the totality,

15:43.965 --> 15:47.605
I use the preferred name of the individual migrants

15:47.625 --> 15:49.405
to give credit to their agency.

15:50.105 --> 15:51.165
Um, so,

15:52.385 --> 15:55.445
and I think it's not worth it that many researchers who do,

15:55.585 --> 15:59.165
research with recent migrants in con conflict zones

15:59.165 --> 16:03.445
and refugees conclude with the same, need.

16:03.925 --> 16:07.525
I mean, they say that migrants always say, see me, see me

16:07.525 --> 16:10.525
as a human being, as an individual, not like, you know,

16:10.665 --> 16:14.045
representative of a race or a number and so on.

16:14.625 --> 16:18.085
So in a way, all history historian does not have claims

16:18.185 --> 16:21.245
to represent ability, totality, generalizability,

16:22.345 --> 16:25.765
but, trust the, even, even one, each story

16:25.825 --> 16:27.365
of each individual matters.

16:28.065 --> 16:30.965
Uh, so it's not about calculable analytics,

16:31.145 --> 16:34.605
but it's about, telling the stories,

16:34.745 --> 16:35.925
how residents changed,

16:36.565 --> 16:39.045
appropriated corrected their, stories.

16:39.265 --> 16:42.805
It kind of enables writing architectural history, I think,

16:42.805 --> 16:46.165
as a story, as a storytelling in the sense of experience

16:46.165 --> 16:48.605
that's passed from mouth to mouth,

16:49.025 --> 16:52.605
or, in the sense of understanding architecture as spaces

16:52.635 --> 16:55.325
that are filled with the fabric of everyday life.

16:55.905 --> 16:59.925
Um, and I think storytelling, telling the, stories

16:59.945 --> 17:02.925
of the individuals also give us a,

17:03.565 --> 17:06.725
a very textured story about the political harm,

17:06.745 --> 17:08.365
on the individuals of these racism

17:08.625 --> 17:10.925
and the discriminatory regulations that I,

17:10.955 --> 17:12.045
just, mentioned.

17:12.625 --> 17:14.605
Um, it also allowed me to write more women

17:15.115 --> 17:17.085
into architectural history,

17:17.085 --> 17:19.565
because once you tell the story of a space

17:19.745 --> 17:21.045
and how it has been changed

17:21.545 --> 17:25.125
and appropriated by the woman, it allows, us

17:25.145 --> 17:27.165
to put more, woman

17:27.305 --> 17:29.645
and have a feminist architectural history.

17:30.425 --> 17:33.325
Um, and the second part of your question about

17:33.465 --> 17:37.645
how non-citizen rights to the city, was performed,

17:37.975 --> 17:40.925
maybe it might be good to remember that in our current, and,

17:40.945 --> 17:43.965
and that's, a critique that is done by many,

17:43.965 --> 17:47.205
political philosophers as well in our, current

17:47.855 --> 17:49.045
human rights regime.

17:49.465 --> 17:51.605
In a way, the human and citizenship rights,

17:51.605 --> 17:53.765
even though they're supposed to be separate,

17:53.875 --> 17:55.685
they are kind of attached.

17:55.965 --> 17:58.525
I mean, despite all the,

17:58.525 --> 18:00.645
talk about refugee rights in a way,

18:00.645 --> 18:03.645
individuals human rights are actually secured when they're

18:03.645 --> 18:07.085
full citizens and migrants do not necessarily have,

18:07.185 --> 18:09.125
the same, privileges

18:09.145 --> 18:11.805
or rights that are, enjoyed by citizens.

18:11.805 --> 18:13.725
And the discriminatory housing regulations

18:13.725 --> 18:17.205
that I just mentioned five minutes ago are a good example,

18:17.585 --> 18:21.925
that shows how citizenship law, was, kind of,

18:22.025 --> 18:23.885
weaponized, in order to

18:24.605 --> 18:26.645
exercise racism against migrants.

18:27.385 --> 18:28.765
Uh, so in this sense,

18:28.885 --> 18:31.165
I think subversive examples matter in this

18:31.195 --> 18:32.805
non-citizen rights to the city.

18:33.065 --> 18:36.285
Um, and Rosberg is also a good example.

18:36.505 --> 18:39.245
Uh, even though there were many complicit architects,

18:39.245 --> 18:40.605
ironic architects, there were also

18:40.605 --> 18:41.805
some subversive architects.

18:41.845 --> 18:46.005
A group of architects called Iba Alpa, renovated the,

18:46.145 --> 18:49.445
buildings in one part in their part,

18:49.445 --> 18:52.485
through a participatory urban renewal process without

18:52.495 --> 18:56.125
displacing the current residents, in a way they achieved

18:56.145 --> 19:00.165
to carry out a very radically democratic urban renewal.

19:00.825 --> 19:04.125
Uh, basically they prepared countless handouts

19:04.125 --> 19:06.845
to explain the renewal process to the immigrants.

19:07.075 --> 19:09.365
They organize house meetings for each

19:09.365 --> 19:13.165
and every building in order to record the neighbor's,

19:13.165 --> 19:15.005
requirements, sometimes conflicting

19:15.005 --> 19:16.525
and complimenting requirements.

19:17.105 --> 19:19.725
Uh, tenant advisors went door to door,

19:19.745 --> 19:21.165
to each and every apartments.

19:21.195 --> 19:23.085
They employed many translators

19:23.855 --> 19:25.685
architects removed and edit walls.

19:25.685 --> 19:29.045
They combined or divided units, they added stairs based on

19:29.045 --> 19:30.285
what the immigrants wanted.

19:30.945 --> 19:34.085
Um, and the immigrants themselves, agreed,

19:34.185 --> 19:35.725
to put up with the construction.

19:35.725 --> 19:39.405
They didn't, did not leave their apartments with the,

19:39.405 --> 19:41.325
fear that they may not be able to return.

19:41.465 --> 19:44.285
So they agreed to put up with the construction,

19:45.185 --> 19:46.605
in their apartments.

19:46.605 --> 19:48.245
They kept renewing their apartments.

19:48.585 --> 19:52.125
And as a result of this process, no single,

19:52.155 --> 19:54.765
immigrant non-citizen family was unwillingly

19:54.765 --> 19:56.045
displaced from their apartment.

19:56.505 --> 19:58.885
And this kept the original percentage

19:58.925 --> 20:00.445
of immigrants, insect.

20:00.605 --> 20:02.565
I mean, in a way, the government wanted

20:02.705 --> 20:06.245
to reduce the percentage of immigrants in cross back to 10%

20:06.345 --> 20:08.005
or less than 10%.

20:08.235 --> 20:13.165
Whereas with this urban renewal strategy, 50% could stay

20:13.265 --> 20:16.325
or whatever was the percent almost close to 50%.

20:16.325 --> 20:18.005
We don't know the numbers very well,

20:18.345 --> 20:20.365
but, 50% could stay.

20:21.025 --> 20:24.085
Um, so in other words, the government's moving quota

20:24.385 --> 20:27.005
or discriminatory laws were subverted,

20:27.005 --> 20:29.485
during the urban renewal by a group of professionals

20:29.485 --> 20:32.245
that were employed, by the Senate itself,

20:32.245 --> 20:35.565
which enabled this non-citizens right to stay home.

20:35.825 --> 20:37.995
Um, and,

20:38.215 --> 20:41.075
and again, for me, showing the agency of the,

20:41.075 --> 20:43.915
these immigrants in the making of their apartments,

20:44.115 --> 20:45.795
buildings and cities were equally important.

20:46.035 --> 20:49.285
I tried to record all the small little details

20:49.315 --> 20:52.725
that they made, they changed, and, so on and so forth.

20:53.185 --> 20:56.445
Um, so that we understand how Kreisberg was built

20:56.505 --> 20:59.685
by these immigrant, not just, the famous architects

20:59.685 --> 21:01.285
that we know on no of.

21:01.285 --> 21:04.725
And today, I think Kreisberg is one of the charming places

21:04.865 --> 21:08.245
to live, thanks to in no small part,

21:08.305 --> 21:09.925
to these renovated apartments

21:10.235 --> 21:12.845
that provide these unique surprises In inside,

21:12.845 --> 21:16.805
they have idiosyncratic floor plans, in addition to,

21:16.825 --> 21:19.605
of course, cosmopolitan population, human rights, protests,

21:19.625 --> 21:22.365
energy, art, and music scene in addition

21:22.365 --> 21:23.805
to the cafes and so on.

21:24.385 --> 21:27.565
Uh, so I think studying this urban renewal process both

21:27.565 --> 21:31.205
allowed me to see the roots of, racism,

21:32.025 --> 21:35.325
and hidden ways that architecture wa was used to,

21:35.325 --> 21:36.965
discriminate to,

21:37.915 --> 21:40.325
establish ratio control on the one hand,

21:40.625 --> 21:44.205
and to give due acknowledgement to the migrants, black

21:44.205 --> 21:47.605
and brown migrants that made our cities,

21:47.635 --> 21:51.565
that we perceive, that we thought were, created

21:51.785 --> 21:53.605
by white male architects.

00:00 - It might be useful to say a few words about how I define race. I understand race, to be a social constructed category, that produces racism, based on what people look like, how they sound, or where, where they come from.

00:16 - so the categorization of races and its product, racism is in a way an artificial ification of human bodies, with some essential, characteristics that are attached to them, to these bodies by birth. for that reason, I think race has much less to do, with the actual human bodies, but more, to do with the sciences, politics, that divide, classify and label, them. So races, I think, are racialized.

00:46 - and needless to say, to undo racism, we have to speak about race. and for that reason, I think architecture and architectural education or the history courses in architectural, education is a very productive medium to speak about how race has been constructed. we, you know, these courses may expose our modern, knowledge, modern epistemology or, phenomena like slavery

01:11 - and colonization relied on these categories of race that we still live in. and at the same time, however, I think we need to study race, with the anticipation that it, racial studies will not be needed, in the future will disappear when racism is undone. and concerning your question about what does race have to do with architecture, in a way the, you know, there's so many levels to this.

01:39 - think of the segregation of urban neighborhoods or buildings, building parts or redlining, or the association of beauty with European classical architecture. the perceived hierarchy between the climates of the world and their association with beauty and progress, architectural symbolism, the ranking of architectural styles, the racial separation between elite designers and the construction workers of buildings and so on.

02:07 - So, actually, architecture and buildings have a lot, to do with, with racism. Discrimination based on gender, family inheritance, skin color caste existed throughout, centuries, in many parts of the world. but today we live, in an age that inherits, to a large extent European racial categories of the 19th century. in a way these categories, have impacted also the making

02:37 - of architectural history as a discipline. in other words, you know, architectural history as a discipline at its foundation inherits many of the racial categories of European racial categories, of the 19th century. and for this reason, I think, to understand or under racism, we Also have to think of new knowledge, how to produce new knowledge, that goes beyond our comfort zones.

03:05 - so the narrative that has been produced by Eurocentric racial categories, which kind of see architecture is it set of sequential, practices between white male architects. That's a Eurocentric canon. It has been very influential for many years now. It is, I mean, the weakness of that canon, is, well established. but the, alternatives that have been produced, against them is not totally, they,

03:35 - they reproduce some of the racial categories. For instance, after, admitting the weakness of the Eurocentric canon, people have started, there's a tendency to divide world architecture into categories like Islamic architecture, Asian architecture, African architecture, to put more, to be more inclusive. But this, tendency also perpetrates conventional categories, and they assume these architectures are self-contained

04:02 - and often hierarchical, territorial zones. for instance, the clash of civilizations theory, is a very good, example of this. And this mindset, I think is still very vulnerable, to, entrenching some of the, racial categories that produced racism in the first place. For that reason, in my own, writing or teaching, I, use something called an intertwined history approach. I try to see, the, intertwined history

04:34 - of modern architecture that in a way, rewrites, modernity in terms of migrations, translations, as opposed to this colonial nationalist and separative framework. So it means seeing a much more connected world, because of the people ideas of objects, technologies, images, information that travel between spaces, and that gets, translated each time rather than seeing a world that depends on these segregated, isolated, racial or geographical, categories.

05:03 - and one of the hardest narratives to challenge, if you want, you ask me to give some examples. For instance, one of the hardest narratives to challenge, is this established history that sees modernity, or enlightenment as a European and North American invention, that was then disseminated to the rest of the world. In a way, this, narrative sees the Wests and global dominance, over modern world as something to be proud of.

05:32 - but this narrative also obscures how modernity was, indeed produced in a global network, of, creations. for instance, it's curious that, the French and American revolutions are usually treated in architectural history or in history in general, as big leaps of humanity as benchmarks of modern symbols of self-governance, freedom, and so on. But, Haiti revolution, or the slave revolts

06:01 - that were happening simultaneously are not really, integrated into, into this narrative. So, for that reason, in my own classes, rather than treating, let's say, teaching only French Revolution as a chronological macro, freedom, equality, human rights, and so on, I try to see, the connected history between American French and Haiti, revolutions, or to give another example, when teaching Industrial Revolution, I do not look only at the impact of new materials,

06:31 - technologies and mass production in the architecture of London, Paris, and Chicago. But I also discuss strong cause and effect relation between industrialization and colonization of, Africa and, west Asia. Or when I'm teaching post-colonial independence, I also, look at the continuing Western mandates and the era of erasure of ethnic minorities in the name of anti-colonial resistance. So I try to kind of, present, a history

07:02 - of the world that is much more, connect, connected, and sees both the colonial and cosmopolitan ideals, in disconnected history. and I think the ultimate aim of this history is, to expose the racism, but at the same time, to build some sort of justice and peace. therefore, this history needs to also excavate, some of the good examples, some cosmopolitan potentials contributions of the hio erased, minority architects

07:35 - of any gender, any race from any place of world. To build for a more just, picture of, of architectural history, in that book, I look at the racialization, of Muslim immigrants and refugees, in Germany as, it reflected on public housing and memory, debates. so open architecture, for me, I mean, I define it, as a new ethical welcoming, into the design process. in a way, the book asks what would've happened if architectural profession were

08:12 - shaped by a welcoming toward the racialized immigrant, and I call this open architecture. So I try to look at formal programmatic or procedural steps towards open architecture. and as you said, I look particularly at the urban renewal of Berlin Rosberg in the, 1980s. and the state of the art public housing buildings, are well known in the field of architecture, in professional debates

08:37 - because of the famous international architects that built there. I mean, there's a very long list of famous architecture names. In a way, the fact that these buildings were built in an immigrant district had not been addressed. and the Rosberg borough at the time, it was along the Berlin Wall. The Berlin Wall stood at the time, and that neighborhood had been heavily bombed,

08:59 - during the Second World War. And it was left, to, it was neglected, without municipal repair. and at the time, it was composed of almost 50% immigrants, predominantly from Turkey, who had arrived either as guest workers, since 1961, or as refugees, in the aftermath of the 1980s Cota in Turkey. I mean, there are many layers in the book, but the one that I think would be relevant

09:26 - for your question is this racialization of these immigrant Muslim immigrants in Germany. and the book defines, in a way, two major steps, for an what might be called an anti-racist, architectural history. the first step is to write this history in a way that exposes discrimination, because even that is, was not, acknowledged. and the second, is to show, the agency of these immigrants in the making of, the urban spaces

09:57 - that we assumed had been created by white male architects. so in terms of the first step about, exposing discrimination, the Middle Eastern, because this was never done in a very, overt way, we're talking about 1980s, but I tried to disclose how hidden, and sometimes not so hidden waste, racializes immigrants, not so hidden waste included, like toilet decrease, ex explaining how to handle human waste.

10:27 - the German and Turkish children were, separated into different classes. there were many newspaper advertisements that made it clear that immigrants were not eligible to rent apartments. Landlord and housing bureaus consistently turned down migrants applications and pushed them into rundown buildings. Then they define those rundown buildings

10:48 - as ghettos in the sense of source of trial, troubled crime and chaos. and the landlords took advantage of the Turkish tenant's lack of rights, and they did not perform legally required maintenance. and there was also some very hidden ways, that racialized, or exerted discrimination, for instance, the government, legal ways to handle, this issue was very discriminatory.

11:13 - In the 1970s, the Berlin Senates passed a series of housing laws and regulations, that relied on these racialized categorizations. For, for instance, there was something called the ban on entry and settlement, which prohibited the movement of additional immigrant families into rosberg. or there was something called the desegregation regulation, which mandated that only 10% of units would be, rented to, immigrants all over West Berlin.

11:42 - For instance, if there was a building with 10 apartments, and if one apartment was occupied by a Turkish family, no other Turkish family could move in. There was a quota. In other words, and the social Democrats justified these regulations as integration. but according to immigrants themselves, these regulations were meant to obstruct them, from constructing social and, cultural networks. And during the urban renewal, the,

12:09 - government also shifted, to Christian Democrats who, mobilized anti-immigration policies. For instance, the building senator that was responsible for Berg's urban renewal clearly said, you know, whoever runs to Germany must feel like a German. If you don't want, just go back to our country. So there were these anti-immigration, policies as well. and this urban renewal, very ly, translated these policies into the functional program, of the buildings, for instance, in the new buildings,

12:41 - the, government made sure that only five or 10% of the apartments will new public housing, apartments will be big apartments that would have been, good for the, immigrant families. so in other words, the, governments, had assessed that there were too many immigrants in Rosberg, and they wanted to make sure that the Germans benefited from the new urban renewal and high quality public housing. So they made sure that only apartments that were,

13:12 - not good for big Turkish families were constructed. So, in other words, this program would either diminish the immigrant families chances to move into new public housing, high quality public housing, or, it would welcome them only if they changed how they lived and fit, the, standards of German family size. So this collapsibility between race and non-citizen conveniently served

13:38 - to exert discrimination under the pretext of, law. so in the book, I discuss how these policymakers, use architecture as a mechanism of racial control, but I also analyze how architects in a way, responded to this, this situation. Some were complicit, some were naive, politically naive, some were ironic, and some were indeed subverted. They really, some of them subverted, these, laws for non-citizens, and made sure that the new urban renewal

14:08 - and public housing benefited the, racialized immigrants as well. So there's maybe two part question. One is methodological. The other is, how did this non rights to the city were, enabled in a way? How, how were these discriminatory laws subverted? So, speaking to the first part, methodologically, I want to extend, the theme of the book Open Architecture to a format of writing. I tried to, like, maybe,

14:39 - find an open form of writing history, by giving voice not only to the established or understudied architects, but also to the immigrant residents. Architectural history usually gives, voice to the architects, but not necessarily the, residents. so I rang every bell basically in Berlin Rosberg, during the research of this book. and I came to, I identify and build trust, with those immigrants who were willing

15:06 - to tell their stories at length to me over a few years. And I tried to configure their voices, Biogen inspired by oral history, and storytelling rather than sociology, ethnography, or other forms of environmental science and oral history was my preferred method, because I think an oral historian rephrase refrains from representing an entire ethnicity and entire race, and as the name, of the underrepresented individual into history.

15:36 - So rather than saying immigrant, or rather than saying 50% or 60% a percentage, and rather than trying to find the totality, I use the preferred name of the individual migrants to give credit to their agency. so, and I think it's not worth it that many researchers who do, research with recent migrants in con conflict zones and refugees conclude with the same, need. I mean, they say that migrants always say, see me, see me

16:07 - as a human being, as an individual, not like, you know, representative of a race or a number and so on. So in a way, all history historian does not have claims to represent ability, totality, generalizability, but, trust the, even, even one, each story of each individual matters. so it's not about calculable analytics, but it's about, telling the stories, how residents changed, appropriated corrected their, stories.

16:39 - It kind of enables writing architectural history, I think, as a story, as a storytelling in the sense of experience that's passed from mouth to mouth, or, in the sense of understanding architecture as spaces that are filled with the fabric of everyday life. and I think storytelling, telling the, stories of the individuals also give us a, a very textured story about the political harm, on the individuals of these racism and the discriminatory regulations that I,

17:10 - just, mentioned. it also allowed me to write more women into architectural history, because once you tell the story of a space and how it has been changed and appropriated by the woman, it allows, us to put more, woman and have a feminist architectural history. and the second part of your question about how non-citizen rights to the city, was performed,

17:37 - maybe it might be good to remember that in our current, and, and that's, a critique that is done by many, political philosophers as well in our, current human rights regime. In a way, the human and citizenship rights, even though they're supposed to be separate, they are kind of attached. I mean, despite all the, talk about refugee rights in a way, individuals human rights are actually secured when they're

18:03 - full citizens and migrants do not necessarily have, the same, privileges or rights that are, enjoyed by citizens. And the discriminatory housing regulations that I just mentioned five minutes ago are a good example, that shows how citizenship law, was, kind of, weaponized, in order to exercise racism against migrants. so in this sense, I think subversive examples matter in this

18:31 - non-citizen rights to the city. and Rosberg is also a good example. even though there were many complicit architects, ironic architects, there were also some subversive architects. A group of architects called Iba Alpa, renovated the, buildings in one part in their part, through a participatory urban renewal process without displacing the current residents, in a way they achieved to carry out a very radically democratic urban renewal.

19:00 - basically they prepared countless handouts to explain the renewal process to the immigrants. They organize house meetings for each and every building in order to record the neighbor's, requirements, sometimes conflicting and complimenting requirements. tenant advisors went door to door, to each and every apartments. They employed many translators architects removed and edit walls.

19:25 - They combined or divided units, they added stairs based on what the immigrants wanted. and the immigrants themselves, agreed, to put up with the construction. They didn't, did not leave their apartments with the, fear that they may not be able to return. So they agreed to put up with the construction, in their apartments. They kept renewing their apartments. And as a result of this process, no single,

19:52 - immigrant non-citizen family was unwillingly displaced from their apartment. And this kept the original percentage of immigrants, insect. I mean, in a way, the government wanted to reduce the percentage of immigrants in cross back to 10% or less than 10%. Whereas with this urban renewal strategy, 50% could stay or whatever was the percent almost close to 50%. We don't know the numbers very well,

20:18 - but, 50% could stay. so in other words, the government's moving quota or discriminatory laws were subverted, during the urban renewal by a group of professionals that were employed, by the Senate itself, which enabled this non-citizens right to stay home. and, and again, for me, showing the agency of the, these immigrants in the making of their apartments, buildings and cities were equally important.

20:46 - I tried to record all the small little details that they made, they changed, and, so on and so forth. so that we understand how Kreisberg was built by these immigrant, not just, the famous architects that we know on no of. And today, I think Kreisberg is one of the charming places to live, thanks to in no small part, to these renovated apartments that provide these unique surprises In inside, they have idiosyncratic floor plans, in addition to,

21:16 - of course, cosmopolitan population, human rights, protests, energy, art, and music scene in addition to the cafes and so on. so I think studying this urban renewal process both allowed me to see the roots of, racism, and hidden ways that architecture wa was used to, discriminate to, establish ratio control on the one hand, and to give due acknowledgement to the migrants, black and brown migrants that made our cities,

21:47 - that we perceive, that we thought were, created by white male architects.

Faculti AI can make mistakes